Revelation: The Sacrament Altar in the Lateran Basilica

by Jack Freiberg, appearing in Volume 46

The profound spiritual renewal of the Counter-Reformation Church reaffirmed the central role of the Eucharist in Catholic faith and worship. Altars dedicated to the Eucharist were erected in major churches throughout Italy, often by local bishops, while in Rome, the popes assumed the patronage of sacrament altars. In preparation for the Holy Year of 1600, Pope Clement VIII (1592–1605) commissioned a sacrament altar of monumental size and exquisite refinement for the pope’s seat as bishop of Rome, San Giovanni in Laterano (Saint John Lateran), celebrated as Mater et Caput Omnium Ecclesiarum Urbis et Orbis—Mother and Head of all the Churches in the City of Rome and of the World. The towering ciborium serves as the centerpiece of Clement’s comprehensive renovation of the Lateran transept, carried out by a team of artists and craftsmen. Along with the sacrament altar, the project included a monumental organ above the transept entrance, and frescoes along the side walls chronicling the conversion of Constantine the Great to Christianity, paired with the story of the Lateran’s founding, consecration, and endowment. Because the transept faces the main access road from the city (now Via Merulana), it was well suited to its new role as a unified liturgical space. Clement VIII continued the initiative of his predecessor Pope Sixtus V (1585-1590), who constructed a papal benediction loggia in front of the transept and as its landmark erected the oldest and largest Egyptian obelisk in Rome. For those entering the basilica through the transept, the sacrament altar commands attention as the visual and spiritual focus of the space. In this article, I examine how the altar unites elements of the Lateran’s distinctive history with the miracle of Christian salvation.

The ciborium of the Clementine sacrament altar, designed by sculptor and architect Pier Paolo Oliveri, adopts the form of a classical, pedimented aedicula, creating a chapel-like space for the Divine Office. At the heart of the ensemble, a smaller aedicula encloses the tabernacle for the host. The design marks a remarkable expansion of earlier Renaissance altars in both scale and complexity. Altars, initially simple aediculas whether wall-mounted or free-standing, evolved in the sixteenth century into dynamic structures incorporating figural elements that heightened both their visual and spiritual impact. A prime example is the sacrament altar in Pope Sixtus V’s chapel in Santa Maria Maggiore, Rome, where the tabernacle appears as an independent structure, held aloft by four over life-size angels. At the Lateran, the traditional altar aedicula is reinterpreted as a monumental entrance portico: the central columns support the projecting triangular pediment, while recessed flanking columns carry the entablature, which extends along the side walls and is supported by pilasters. The ciborium is firmly anchored to the architecture of the Lateran, embracing the walls and projecting boldly into the worshipper’s path.

The portico-like design of the ciborium is just one aspect of the reinterpretation of traditional forms; another is the use of gilded bronze. While the pediment, column bases, and three of the capitals date from the Clementine period, all four column shafts and one capital date from the early second century A.D., representing the only surviving example of monumental ancient Roman bronze architecture. The seven-meter (twenty-three-foot) tall column shafts are first documented at the Lateran in the eleventh century, but the reference is casual, and they may have been there much earlier, possibly from Constantine’s foundation of the basilica in the fourth century. Before being repurposed for the Clementine altar, the columns stood in pairs on either side of the high altar. Several legends surround their origins. Of particular relevance here is the belief that they came from the Temple of Jerusalem, specifically the Portico of Solomon, which helps to explain the ciborium’s portico-like form. Another legend claims that the columns were filled with earth from Calvary soaked with Christ’s blood, giving them a powerful sacramental significance.

The tabernacle, glittering like a precious gem at the center of the ensemble, is framed by an aedicula of four green marble columns (verde antico) that repeats the shape of the bronze ciborium. The tabernacle itself appears as a small-scale architectural edifice, rising from a rusticated base, adorned with pedimented niches, and crowned by a dome, all crafted from colored marble, gilded bronze, and silver. It represents an especially opulent version of the centrally-planned, freestanding Eucharist container widely used during the Renaissance, most recently in Santa Maria Maggiore. Even though recalling the general form of the freestanding Renaissance tabernacle, the Lateran version is neither freestanding nor fully centralized. A pentagonal central core projects forward to the limits of the aedicula and steps back at the sides where it is anchored to the surrounding niche by two lateral bays.

The function of tabernacles to house the body of Christ led to their association with the tomb of the Lord. This connection was often conveyed by adopting a centralized plan echoing the Anastasis rotunda that Constantine built to honor the site in Jerusalem. In many cases, as at the Lateran, the association was reinforced by placing a statue of the risen Christ atop the tabernacle. The Lateran tabernacle repeats with remarkable precision the inner, sepulchral chapel in Jerusalem, known to have an irregular plan ending in a pentagonal apse. At the Lateran, Jerusalem is symbolically present in two historical phases: the legendary origin of the bronze columns from the Temple, along with other Holy Land relics claimed for the Lateran, refers to the Old Testament promise of human salvation, while the tabernacle-sepulcher proclaims the fulfillment of that promise in the New Testament. This cohesion of the Temple and the Church provided a metaphor for the Eucharist and glorified the Lateran’s own exalted role in Christian history.

The life-size statues of four Hebrew worthies set in niches flanking the altar confirm the truth of this assimilation of the Temple and the Church at the Lateran. From left to right, they are Aaron, Melchizedech, Moses, and Elijah. The sculptors responsible for these works followed a precise plan to relate the holy figures to each other and to the altar. Aaron and Melchizedech, located on the preferred, right side of the altar (to our left), serve as archetypes of the priesthood, while Moses and Elijah, on the opposite side, represent prominent Old Testament leaders. In the position closest to the altar are Melchizedech and Moses, both priest-kings and direct models for Christ and his vicar. The four figures together herald the coming of salvation, as if privy to the profound truth of the Eucharistic mystery. Aaron and Melchizedech seem to move forward, Aaron with a measured advance, and Melchizedech with a forceful stride. Both approach the altar bearing vessels of gilded bronze, Aaron holding a thurible and Melchizedech a chalice, symbolizing their participation in the sacred ritual. Each also holds bread. Opposite them, Moses and Elijah form a complementary pair with more pronounced contrasts. Moses, the most static of the group, gazes upward in spiritual contemplation, while Elijah grasps his mantle and turns to the side, as if moving toward the sacrament. Each action reflects the prophet’s individual story: Aaron censes the altar, Melchizedech strides toward Abraham, Moses communes with God, and Elijah runs toward Mount Horeb. The Eucharistic significance is reinforced by the reliefs above the statues, depicting episodes from their narratives, all related to the offering and consumption of bread and wine. Ultimately, these statues affirm the efficacy of the Eucharist and the mystical translation of Jerusalem to Rome at the Lateran.

The sacramental presence at the Lateran was forcefully evoked by the depiction of the Last Supper in silver relief decorated with gems, one of the most spectacular components of the altar ensemble. The relief was lost during the French occupation of Rome at the end of the eighteenth century and was replaced in the 1860s with the present version. Literary descriptions and visual reflections of the original relief emphasize its dramatic immediacy, achieved by suppressing background space and using life-size figures in high relief. As was customary, Christ occupied the center of the table flanked by the apostles. Less common was the placement of two apostles at each end on the viewer’s side of the table. The apostle on the right turned outward, as if engaging with the worshipper. Significantly, Christ was depicted with his right hand raised in a gesture of blessing, capturing the moment when, acting as priest, he consecrates the bread and wine, instituting the sacrament of the Eucharist.

The powerful depiction of the Last Supper resonated with the pious tradition that the Lateran housed the wooden table on which Christ and the apostles had dined for the Passover meal. This relic was traditionally placed on the high altar for veneration by the faithful on Maundy Thursday, the anniversary of the Last Supper, and one of the most important Stations celebrated at the Lateran. To emphasize the spiritual association of the relief with the table relic, it is moved into place by two angels. These celestial beings, crafted from red marble and gilded bronze, metaphorically radiating fire and light, seem to float in the air as they position the object above the inner aedicula and the sacrament tabernacle. They originally held torches in their outstretched hands, signaling the presence of the Eucharist. The fact that the relic was once entirely covered in silver, with remnants still visible in the sixteenth century, explains the choice of that precious metal for the relief. Through its iconography, presentation by angels, and use of silver, the Last Supper relief emphasized the connection between the Jerusalem relic, Christ’s institution of the Eucharist, and the Lateran.

The dramatic activation of the altar that begins with the statues of the Old Testament worthies and continues with the presentation of the Last Supper by angels culminates in the fresco of the Ascension of Christ above the bronze ciborium. The Ascension was painted by Giuseppe Cesari, who also oversaw the transept fresco cycle. In recognition of his efforts, he was knighted by Clement VIII and became known as the Cavalier d’Arpino. The original plan called for three monumental bronze sculptures of the Risen Christ and the two Saint Johns to be placed above the bronze ciborium. In December 1598, full-scale clay models for these figures were brought to the Lateran for a trial installation. The statues symbolized the triple dedication of the Lateran to Christ (Basilica Salvatoris) and to Saints John the Baptist and John the Evangelist (San Giovanni in Laterano). They also encapsulated Christian history, with the Baptist announcing the coming of the Messiah, the Evangelist proclaiming his return, and Christ at the center exhibiting the fulfillment of their prophecies.

When Clement VIII visited the Lateran in January 1599, he expressed dissatisfaction with the appearance of the altar. This may have been due to the sculptures not being large enough to dominate the space above the bronze pediment. A more important reason for replacing these figures with the Ascension was to integrate the altar’s overarching sacramental theme. The Ascension completes the progression of Christ’s Passion, which begins with the crucifixion, symbolized by the altar cross, and continues with the Resurrection, commemorated by the risen Christ above the sacrament tabernacle. During the solemn prayer Unde et memores, recited by the priest immediately after the words of consecration, the host is defined in these terms, recalling the Passion, Resurrection, and Ascension. At the Lateran, the defining moments of the Paschal mystery are revealed in a grand dramatic unfolding, as if happening before our eyes.

The Ascension held particular significance at the Lateran. As Christ rose to heaven, he imparted the divine structure of the Church to the apostles. In that moment, Peter’s role as Christ’s vicar was activated, and the sacraments became efficacious. To emphasize the authoritative nature of the fresco in Rome’s cathedral, the artist drew inspiration from esteemed Roman High Renaissance art, modeling the mesmerizing figure of Christ after Raphael’s Transfiguration of Christ (Vatican Museums, Pinacoteca), with the notable difference that the Lord now gazes outward toward the worshipper. By evoking the Transfiguration in this way, Arpino recalled Christ’s first revelation of his divinity to the apostles, when Moses and Elijah appeared and recognized him as the Messiah. What may seem like a straightforward artistic reference carries deeper meaning: the Transfiguration, celebrated as the Feast of the Savior, was observed with special solemnity in churches dedicated to Christ, including the Lateran, where it ranked among the basilica’s most prominent feasts.

The inclusion of the Ascension, the culminating event in salvation history, as a mark of the Lateran’s unique status reaches its peak in the most extraordinary part of the altar ensemble and the entire transept program. The three central figures of the fresco—Christ and the two apostles flanking him—are arranged in a triangular composition, mirroring the shape of the bronze pediment. Due to the proximity of the fresco to the ciborium, much of its central portion is obscured when viewed up close. From a distance, however, the figures seem to hover above the ciborium, and as one approaches the altar, the perspective shifts dramatically. Approximately two-thirds of the way down the transept from the entrance, the apostles’ feet seem to rest on the real entablature, while Christ is depicted as alighting on the pediment. From this vantage point, the scene unfolds within the transept itself, reinforcing the Eucharistic mystery of Christ’s real presence. The two apostles flanking Christ can be identified as the Lateran’s patron saint, John the Evangelist (left), and his brother James the Great (right). They bear witness to Christ’s royal enthronement, symbolizing the essential connection between Christ in heaven and Christ on earth, at the Lateran. This remarkable illusion recalls the pious tradition that Christ actually appeared in the basilica’s apse during its consecration on November 9 by Pope Sylvester in the presence of Constantine. In the words of the Breviarium Romanum (1603 edition), “the memory of this consecration is celebrated on this day, when for the first time in Rome a church was publicly consecrated, and the image of the Savior, depicted on the wall, appeared to the Roman people.” The Volto Santo, venerated as a relic of this event, is featured in the late medieval mosaic decoration of the apse, while in one of the frescoes along the transept walls, the scene is depicted as a narrative moment. Through this apparition, Christ sanctified the basilica as his sacred seat on earth, from which salvation would spread to the world.

The Clementine sacrament altar presents a cohesive vision that merges the mystery of the Eucharist with the history of the Lateran. The pivotal events in salvation history are visualized as taking place within the actual space of the transept. The prophets approach the altar, the institution of the Eucharist at the Last Supper is set in place by heavenly messengers, and Christ ascends to fulfill the New Covenant. This dynamic presentation is anchored by Christ’s authentic sacramental presence. The royal status of the Lateran, consecrated by Christ’s appearance and reinforced by the dynastic lineage traced through Saint John, is confirmed as the central place of redemption and the earthly counterpart to heaven in the year of Christian Jubilee.

This article is a revised version of Chapter 5 in the author’s book, The Lateran in 1600: Christian Concord in Counter-Reformation Rome (Cambridge University Press, 1995). The author wishes to dedicate this article to Irving Lavin (d. 2019), who, in his groundbreaking 1968 study, Bernini and the Crossing of Saint Peter’s, first identified the art historical importance of the Lateran sacrament altar and fundamentally influenced my own work on this subject. Lavin’s book is posted on albert.ias.edu, and mine can be found on academia.edu.